Society at the time
of the Reformation

A revolution happened in the 15th and 16th centuries which would transform European society in almost every dimension. We tend to call this revolution after individual issues inherent in it, namely the Renaissance and the Reformation. These two entities were indissolubly intertwined, however, and a study of either as separate from the whole leads to a misunderstanding of the greater fabric of European society.

Because this revolution would transform the religious and cultural map of Europe, it is important that we have a grasp of the social dimensions of that society before the change. This brief introduction will attempt to do just that: explain how the people of Europe lived and thought.

THE RISING NATION-STATES OF EUROPE

One could scarcely speak about "nations" in the 15th century. England was probably closest to our modern concept of "nation", being a united entity ruled by a king, with a parliament which partially limited his powers. France, on the other hand, was in the process of overcoming feudal divisions. The monarchy was slowly subduing the feudal warlords to create a state united under the crown.

Germany had once been a great empire (commonly called the Holy Roman Empire) but by the 15th century the power of the emperor was crippled by incessant attempts by the princes and warlords to regain their independence.

Any perceived weakness within the empire would quickly be used by these princes for their own benefit and, for that reason alone, the Reformation would be a handy weapon with which to club the existing political arrangements.

CLASS STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY

The Middle Ages had seen the emergence of two "classes" within European society. At the top of the pile was the 1st Estate, i.e. the upper clergy (cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots, etc) who often wielded temporal power over the territories designated to them. Because they represented the Church, they carried immense power over the minds and hearts of the people.

On the temporal side was the 2nd Estate, i.e. the aristocracy living on their great estates in the countryside. They were the descendants of the old warlords and therefore wielded a great strength in military muscle. Since they were opposed to the whittling away of their power, there was a constant tussle between them and the rising monarchies.

A new class, however, was evolving in the towns and cities. This was the class of Bourgeoisie or townsmen: the mayors, merchants and master-craftsmen. They had fought hard during the High Middle Ages to acquire for themselves exemption from the dictates of the aristocracy and they were now calling themselves the "3rd Estate". Their natural inclination was to break the strength of the aristocracy and devolve political power to themselves.

At the bottom of the ladder was the rest of society which was not regarded as part of any Estate or class. In the towns there were the lawyers and teachers, the journeymen and apprentices, the unskilled labourers and the unemployed.

In the country were the peasants who generally worked the land. Most of them were poor although some owned the land on which they lived. They had no political pretensions, seeking only to make life easier for themselves.

STATUS OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH

By the Middle Ages there was only one recognised Church in Europe, known as the One, Holy, Catholic (i.e. Universal) and Apostolic Church under the jurisdiction of the Pope in Rome. During the High Middle Ages the Popes had been supreme but by the 15th century their temporal power was dwindling.

They were scarcely shining lights of Christian piety which meant they could not (and did not) take the lead in any form of Church renewal - at least not until the mid-16th century, by which stage the Reformation was well on its way.

At the centre of the Church's work were the monasteries and religious orders. These were steeped in tradition and ritual, having been in existence for hundreds of years. Many, however, were wealthy and worldly because a younger son of an aristocrat, who had no inheritance, would often buy a rank within the Church.

The Catholic Church was therefore a place of both dedication and corruption but by the 15th century the corruption had become so widespread that a periodic cleansing was long overdue.

THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM

The European economic system was based on a commonsense principle known as mercantilism, i.e. the "state" and the individual were only as wealthy as the cash they could hold in their hands. Wealth was measured in terms of gold and silver that was readily available. "States" with ready access either to precious minerals or to trade were therefore wealthy while those that had no such good fortune were poor.

This fact led to a desire on the part of many of the evolving "nations" to retain their wealth by discouraging imports. There was also a growing tendency to avoid squandering wealth through such unproductive gestures as handing over Church taxation and indulgence money to the Pope in Rome. There was therefore a growing desire to establish national churches simply as a means of controlling finance.

The primary commodity, however, was still agricultural produce but Europe was generally in poor condition. The 14th century had seen a marked decline in agricultural output because of adverse climatic conditions.

The "Little Ice Age" had gripped the continent, causing excess rain and cold. The result was prolonged poverty for most of Europe, especially in the north (e.g. the German territories). The "Little Ice Age" would grip Europe until the mid-17th century.

One can argue, therefore, that the revolution that happened during that same period had as much to do with climate as with any other circumstance.

STATUS OF INTELLECTUAL LIFE

The High Middle Ages had seen the creation and spread of institutions of higher learning, namely the universities. These institutions still flourished in the 15th century although they were becoming increasingly secular in their outlook.

The primary university disciplines were the study of the Bible, the Classics and Philosophy. During the High Middle Ages these institutions had been the backbone of Church theology and philosophy. St Thomas Aquinas in particular had produced a body of systematic theology and philosophy known as Scholasticism which remains the orthodox interpretation of Catholic theology even to the present day.

By the 15th century, however, Scholasticism had become sterile and of limited use in explaining modern reality. It was in need of a radical overhaul but, since it formed the basis of Catholic theology, it had become a "holy cow" to the Church. An attack on Scholasticism therefore became synonymous with an attack on the Church itself.